What is Nyaya philosophy?
Nyaya (न्याय) is one of the six orthodox schools (Astika darshanas) of Hindu philosophy, founded by Gautama (Akshapada) around 400 BCE. It focuses on logic, epistemology, and the theory of valid knowledge (pramana). Its primary text is the Nyaya Sutras, which define 4 pramanas (sources of valid knowledge) and the famous 5-part syllogism (Panchaavayava).
What is Vaisheshika philosophy?
Vaisheshika (वैशेषिक) is the sister school of Nyaya, founded by Kanada (Kashyapa) around 600 BCE. It develops an atomic ontology explaining all of reality through 7 ultimate categories (Padarthas). The Vaisheshika Sutras posit indivisible atoms (Paramanus) as the building blocks of physical reality — an independent discovery predating Democritus.
What are the 4 Nyaya Pramanas?
1. Pratyaksha (Perception) — direct sensory and mental knowledge
2. Anumana (Inference) — knowledge from a mark/reason and vyapti
3. Upamana (Comparison) — knowledge by similarity or analogy
4. Shabda (Testimony) — knowledge from reliable verbal testimony, including Vedic revelation.
What is Vyapti in Nyaya logic?
Vyapti (व्याप्ति) is "invariable concomitance" — the universal, necessary relation between the mark (hetu) and what is inferred (sadhya). The classic example: "Wherever there is smoke, there is fire." This invariable relation must be established before inference can be valid. Vyapti is the foundation of all valid Anumana (inference) in Nyaya.
What are the 7 Padarthas of Vaisheshika?
1. Dravya (Substance) — 9 types: Prithvi, Jala, Tejas, Vayu, Akasha, Kala, Dik, Atman, Manas
2. Guna (Quality) — 24 types including colour, taste, smell
3. Karma (Action/Motion) — 5 types
4. Samanya (Universality) — genus concepts
5. Vishesha (Particularity) — ultimate differentiator
6. Samavaya (Inherence) — inseparable relation
7. Abhava (Absence) — non-existence as a category
Who is Gangesa and what is Navya-Nyaya?
Gangesa Upadhyaya (~1200 CE) authored the Tattvachintamani (Jewel of Logic), which founded Navya-Nyaya (New Logic). He developed an ultra-rigorous formal analysis of vyapti (invariable concomitance) using technical Sanskrit notation. Navya-Nyaya flourished in Bengal (Navadvipa) and became the dominant school of Indian logic for centuries.
How does Nyaya inference compare to Aristotle?
Nyaya uses a 5-part syllogism (Pratijna/Thesis, Hetu/Reason, Udaharana/Example, Upanaya/Application, Nigamana/Conclusion) while Aristotle uses 3 parts. The key difference: Nyaya requires a concrete positive example (Udaharana), providing empirical grounding absent in Aristotelian logic. Both traditions developed independently, with Nyaya predating Aristotle.
How are Nyaya and Vaisheshika related?
Nyaya and Vaisheshika are called sister darshanas — they share many metaphysical presuppositions (pluralism, realism, theism) and were often combined in classical tradition. Nyaya primarily addresses epistemology and logic (how we know), while Vaisheshika addresses ontology and physics (what exists). Together they form a comprehensive philosophical system.